甲主动选择有时胜过默认,最优架构取决于偏好异质性Optimal Defaults and Active Decisions
提出
Gabriel D. Carroll、James J. Choi、David Laibson 等,2009,《Optimal Defaults and Active Decisions*》,Quarterly Journal of Economics 124(4) 1639–1674,DOI 10.1162/qjec.2009.124.4.1639
争议
John Beshears、James J. Choi、David Laibson 等,2021,《Active choice, implicit defaults, and the incentive to choose》,Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 163 6–16,DOI 10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.02.001
最新
Robert L. Clark、Denis Pelletier,2022,《Impact of defaults on participation in state supplemental retirement savings plans》,Journal of Pension Economics and Finance 21(1) 22–37,DOI 10.1017/s1474747220000347
奠基
Herbert A. Simon,1947,《Administrative Behavior》(专著)
主证据给出的量级很具体。雇员储蓄模型显示默认可提高参与率,但偏好差异大时强制主动决定减少错配。(Gabriel D. Carroll、James J. Choi、David Laibson 等,2009)
复制与重估提醒我们,当默认被理解为机构推荐时,默认越强、真实偏好匹配反而越低。给出相反方向的是John Beshears、James J. Choi、David Laibson 等(2021)《Active choice, implicit defaults, and the incentive to choose》。争议对象限定为《Optimal Defaults and Active Decisions》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。净效应还需扣除“默认项与主动选择的相对优势由偏好分散和错误成本决定,不能预设总是默认更好”,若时序与符号仍保留,原机制才算冗余。
若不补经典层,这项工作很容易被误读成首次发现。Herbert A. Simon在1947年把制度条件纳入了原始问题设定。结论依赖选项可理解且转换成本可承担。现代接口落在“默认项与主动选择的相对优势由偏好分散和错误成本决定,不能预设总是默认更好”,而被检验的对象是“主动选择有时胜过默认,最优架构取决于偏好异质性”。
接口的价值在于允许一边成立、另一边失败。参见本块第十五条“个性化助推”。Robert L. Clark、Denis Pelletier(2022)《Impact of defaults on participation in state supplemental retirement savings plans》把观察窗推到近年。
乙邻居用电信息能降耗,但效应会被政治身份和家庭基线改写Social Norms and Energy Conservation
提出
Hunt Allcott,2011,《Social norms and energy conservation》,Journal of Public Economics 95(9-10) 1082–1095,DOI 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.03.003
争议
Mark A. Andor、Andreas Gerster、Jörg Peters 等,2020,《Social Norms and Energy Conservation Beyond the US》,Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 103 102351,DOI 10.1016/j.jeem.2020.102351
最新
Libo Wu、Yang Zhou,2025,《Social norms and energy conservation in China》,Resource and Energy Economics 82 101491,DOI 10.1016/j.reseneeco.2025.101491
奠基
Leon Festinger,1954,《A Theory of Social Comparison Processes》(期刊论文)
批评者攻击的不是现象,而是识别。低耗能者收到高邻居基准时,用电越被提醒反而越可能回升。重估来自Mark A. Andor、Andreas Gerster、Jörg Peters 等(2020)《Social Norms and Energy Conservation Beyond the US》。争议对象限定为《Social Norms and Energy Conservation》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。
最新一笔把原命题放到不同制度中重测。参见本块第十九条“助推的伦理与身份效应”。近年的再检验来自Libo Wu、Yang Zhou:《Social norms and energy conservation in China》(2025)。量级核对落在“描述性规范通过比较反馈改变高耗能家庭的边际用电,决定项是相对位置而非环保态度”,若时序与符号仍保留,原机制才算冗余。
丙承诺账户把时间不一致从性格缺陷改成可设计的制度Tying Odysseus to the Mast: Evidence from a Commitment Savings Product in the Philippines
提出
N. Ashraf、D. Karlan、W. Yin,2006,《Tying Odysseus to the Mast: Evidence From a Commitment Savings Product in the Philippines》,The Quarterly Journal of Economics 121(2) 635–672,DOI 10.1162/qjec.2006.121.2.635
争议
Doojin Ryu、Robert I. Webb、Jinyoung Yu,2022,《Funding liquidity shocks and market liquidity providers》,Finance Research Letters 47 102734,DOI 10.1016/j.frl.2022.102734
如果换掉观察窗,原方向未必保留。若收入冲击频繁且紧急流动性无替代,锁定越严、福利损失反而越大。边界证据可追到Doojin Ryu、Robert I. Webb、Jinyoung Yu(2022)《Funding liquidity shocks and market liquidity providers》。争议对象限定为《Tying Odysseus to the Mast: Evidence from a Commitment Savings Product in the Philippines》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。
新的实证与旧命题相接,却没有取消旧边界。Robert H. Strotz在1955年提供了今天反事实比较的旧基线。产品效果不能外推到没有最低流动性保障的家庭。新增部分是把“承诺账户把时间不一致从性格缺陷改成可设计的制度”变成可由“自愿限制提款把未来自我约束写进合约,只有绑定机制才改变跨期储蓄路径”推翻的命题。样本窗必须对准“菲律宾随机试验中承诺账户一年后使储蓄余额提高约81%,效果集中在自认缺乏自控者”,点估计不能脱离对应观察窗。
Hai-Anh H. Dang、Peter Lanjouw,2021,《Data Scarcity and Poverty Measurement》,SSRN Electronic Journal,DOI 10.2139/ssrn.3905066
最新
Nathan N. Cheek、Eldar Shafir,2024,《From Stigma to Scarcity: On Interpersonal and Cognitive Sources of Vulnerability for Consumers in Poverty》,Review of Marketing Research 69–81,DOI 10.1108/s1548-643520240000021005
奠基
Kurt Lewin,1951,《Field Theory in Social Science》(专著)
因此本条在整块中不是终点,而是下一次检验的入口。参见本块第十四条“行政负担与sludge”。《From Stigma to Scarcity: On Interpersonal and Cognitive Sources of Vulnerability for Consumers in Poverty》由Nathan N. Cheek、Eldar Shafir在2024年补上新的制度窗。
戊税是否被看见会改变需求弹性,法定税率并非唯一价格Salience and Taxation: Theory and Evidence
提出
Raj Chetty、Adam Looney、Kory Kroft,2009,《Salience and Taxation: Theory and Evidence》,American Economic Review 99(4) 1145–1177,DOI 10.1257/aer.99.4.1145
争议
HyungBin Moon、Youngjun Park、Sungmoon Jung,2024,《Analyzing consumer preferences for the level of tax salience of fuel taxes and the benefits of increasing salience》,Innovation studies 19(3) 55–77,DOI 10.46251/innos.2024.8.19.3.55
最新
Shinri Ishida、Yoshiyuki Nakazono、Jun Takahashi 等,2026,《Tax Salience under Rational Inattention》,出版源未详,DOI 10.2139/ssrn.6806359
奠基
Maurice Allais,1953,《Le comportement de l’homme rationnel devant le risque》(期刊论文)
真正的失效不是“不显著”,而是:当消费者反复购买并形成总价记忆时,税越隐蔽、需求越不敏感的方向可归零。方法反驳见HyungBin Moon、Youngjun Park、Sungmoon Jung(2024)《Analyzing consumer preferences for the level of tax salience of fuel taxes and the benefits of increasing salience》。争议对象限定为《Salience and Taxation: Theory and Evidence》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。
己推定同意能提高器官捐献率,但法律默认不能替代医疗组织The Impact of Presumed Consent Legislation on Cadaveric Organ Donation
提出
Alberto Abadie、Sebastien Gay,2006,《The impact of presumed consent legislation on cadaveric organ donation: A cross-country study》,Journal of Health Economics 25(4) 599–620,DOI 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2006.01.003
争议
Vicente Formoso、Sílvia Marina、Miguel Ricou,2021,《Presumed Consent for Organ Donation: An Incoherent Justification》,Acta bioethica 27(1) 27–35,DOI 10.4067/s1726-569x2021000100027
最新
Joan Costa-Font、Caroline Rudisill、Maximilian Salcher-Konrad,2021,《‘Relative Consent’ or ‘Presumed Consent’? Organ donation attitudes and behaviour》,The European Journal of Health Economics 22(1) 5–16,DOI 10.1007/s10198-020-01214-8
奠基
Herbert A. Simon,1947,《Administrative Behavior》(专著)
当分母从样本转向总体,若移植协调能力弱,法律默认越宽、实际捐献转化率反而可能不升。方向争议由Vicente Formoso、Sílvia Marina、Miguel Ricou(2021)《Presumed Consent for Organ Donation: An Incoherent Justification》。争议对象限定为《The Impact of Presumed Consent Legislation on Cadaveric Organ Donation》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。
回到原著,可以辨认机制里仍未改变的骨架。Herbert A. Simon在1947年预先标出了总体与局部之间的断点。制度比较受文化与医疗容量混杂,不能只读法律文本。若不单测默认规则通过授权成本改变捐献进入分母,但医院识别与家属沟通决定实际转化,经典判断仍只是一条方向性基线。模型的缺口恰是“推定同意能提高器官捐献率,但法律默认不能替代医疗组织”,原来互相抵消的组别差才会显形。
放进本块的网络里,本条承担的是接口而非重复。参见本块第一条“主动选择与默认的错配”。Joan Costa-Font、Caroline Rudisill、Maximilian Salcher-Konrad的《‘Relative Consent’ or ‘Presumed Consent’? Organ donation attitudes and behaviour》把末端年份延至2021年。
庚实验室偏好不能无损外推,选择进入实验本身就是处理What Do Laboratory Experiments Measuring Social Preferences Reveal About the Real World?
提出
Steven D Levitt、John A List,2007,《What Do Laboratory Experiments Measuring Social Preferences Reveal About the Real World?》,Journal of Economic Perspectives 21(2) 153–174,DOI 10.1257/jep.21.2.153
争议
Xiaojun Yang、Zihan Nie、Jianying Qiu 等,2020,《Institutional preferences, social preferences and cooperation: Evidence from a lab-in-the-field experiment in rural China》,Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics 87 101554,DOI 10.1016/j.socec.2020.101554
最新
Raman Kachurka、Michał Krawczyk、Joanna Rachubik,2021,《State lottery in the lab: an experiment in external validity》,Experimental Economics 24(4) 1242–1266,DOI 10.1007/s10683-020-09696-2
奠基
B. F. Skinner,1953,《Science and Human Behavior》(专著)
样本中的转折点比平均值更重要。综述比较实验室与现场后发现同一合作或利他指标会随赌注和样本构成大幅移动。(Steven D Levitt、John A List,2007)
制度开始回应指标以后,当现场规则更透明、重复互动更强时,实验越匿名、预测现实越弱。替代解释来自Xiaojun Yang、Zihan Nie、Jianying Qiu 等(2020)《Institutional preferences, social preferences and cooperation: Evidence from a lab-in-the-field experiment in rural China》。争议对象限定为《What Do Laboratory Experiments Measuring Social Preferences Reveal About the Real World?》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。制度反馈迫使比较“现场行为同时受筛选、利害大小与声誉约束,实验参数只有在这些条件对齐时才能外推”,若时序与符号仍保留,原机制才算冗余。
今天的贡献是把经典判断变成可观测比率。B. F. Skinner在1953年写下了本条仍在沿用的因果次序。外部效度批评不否定实验的内部机制识别。现代贡献应记在“实验室偏好不能无损外推,选择进入实验本身就是处理”的量化,而非重新发明概念。
同块另一条提供了反方向的校验。参见第79号计算社会科学面板的数字痕迹外推条目。最新一笔是《State lottery in the lab: an experiment in external validity》(Raman Kachurka、Michał Krawczyk、Joanna Rachubik,2021)。
辛社会规范干预会反弹,笑脸符号说明方向不是单调的The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms
提出
P. Wesley Schultz、Jessica M. Nolan、Robert B. Cialdini 等,2007,《The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms》,Psychological Science 18(5) 429–434,DOI 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01917.x
争议
Marco Tosi,2020,《Boomerang Kids and Parents’ Well-Being: Adaptation, Stressors, and Social Norms》,European Sociological Review,DOI 10.1093/esr/jcz068
最新
作者未详,2025,《boomerang effect》,The IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology,DOI 10.1351/goldbook.14507
奠基
Leon Festinger,1954,《A Theory of Social Comparison Processes》(期刊论文)
结果表里最值得保留的是:家庭能耗实验中高耗能者下降、低耗能者却出现回升;加入赞许符号后反弹被压制。(P. Wesley Schultz、Jessica M. Nolan、Robert B. Cialdini 等,2007)模型的缺口恰是“家庭能耗实验中高耗能者下降、低耗能者却出现回升;加入赞许符号后反弹被压制”,点估计不能脱离对应观察窗。
在尾部状态中,若群体基准本身有害,规范越显著、偏离目标的行为反而越多。复现分歧见Marco Tosi(2020)《Boomerang Kids and Parents’ Well-Being: Adaptation, Stressors, and Social Norms》。争议对象限定为《The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。
一助推的平均效应不等于可移植规律,发表偏倚会抬高总体值The Effectiveness of Nudging: A Meta-Analysis of Choice Architecture Interventions across Behavioral Domains
提出
Stephanie Mertens、Mario Herberz、Ulf J. J. Hahnel 等,2022,《The effectiveness of nudging: A meta-analysis of choice architecture interventions across behavioral domains》,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119(1),DOI 10.1073/pnas.2107346118
争议
Hani Samawi,2021,《Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis》,Applied Meta-Analysis with R and Stata 237–252,DOI 10.1201/9780429061240-9
最新
Roland T. Rust、Donald R. Lehmann、John U. Farley,2026,《Estimating Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis》,Great Thinkers in Marketing 171–182,DOI 10.1007/978-3-031-88060-5_10
奠基
Daniel Kahneman、Amos Tversky,1979,《Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk》(期刊论文)
这项工作把原来不可比的对象放进同一把尺。纳入200余项研究、400多个效应,原始平均效应约d=0.43,但异质性和发表偏倚显著。(Stephanie Mertens、Mario Herberz、Ulf J. J. Hahnel 等,2022)
一旦一般均衡反馈进入,严重选择模型校正后,纳入越多小研究、平均效应反而越接近零。给出相反方向的是Hani Samawi(2021)《Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis》。争议对象限定为《The Effectiveness of Nudging: A Meta-Analysis of Choice Architecture Interventions across Behavioral Domains》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。
二偏倚校正后“平均助推”可能消失,争议焦点转向模型选择No Evidence for Nudging after Adjusting for Publication Bias
提出
Maximilian Maier、František Bartoš、T. D. Stanley 等,2022,《No evidence for nudging after adjusting for publication bias》,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119(31),DOI 10.1073/pnas.2200300119
争议
Yohei Mitani,2023,《Nudge Intervention and Non-response Bias in Landowner Participation》,AEA Randomized Controlled Trials,DOI 10.1257/rct.12514-1.0
最新
Anoop Kumar,2023,《Heterogeneity and Publication Bias》,Meta-analysis in Clinical Research: Principles and Procedures 39–47,DOI 10.1007/978-981-99-2370-0_6
奠基
Daniel Kahneman、Amos Tversky,1979,《Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk》(期刊论文)
数量级显示机制并非边角修正。对同一PNAS数据重估后,整体平均效应在多种偏倚校正下接近零且不稳定。(Maximilian Maier、František Bartoš、T. D. Stanley 等,2022)
把短期冲击拉成长周期时,若预注册大型现场研究占比上升,校正越强、效应越低的方向会归零。重估来自Yohei Mitani(2023)《Nudge Intervention and Non-response Bias in Landowner Participation》。争议对象限定为《No Evidence for Nudging after Adjusting for Publication Bias》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。外推在此止步:“若预注册大型现场研究占比上升,校正越强、效应越低的方向会归零”,这会改写排序而不只是降低精度。识别对象收窄为本块第九条“助推元分析”,两条必须用不同分母裁决。
三大规模并列实验让行为干预从单篇显著转向同场排名A Megastudy of Text-Based Nudges Encouraging Patients to Get Vaccinated at an Upcoming Doctor’s Appointment
提出
Katherine L. Milkman、Mitesh S. Patel、Linnea Gandhi 等,2021,《A megastudy of text-based nudges encouraging patients to get vaccinated at an upcoming doctor’s appointment》,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118(20),DOI 10.1073/pnas.2101165118
Katherine L. Milkman、Linnea Gandhi、Mitesh S. Patel 等,2022,《A 680,000-person megastudy of nudges to encourage vaccination in pharmacies》,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119(6),DOI 10.1073/pnas.2115126119
奠基
L. L. Thurstone,1927,《A Law of Comparative Judgment》(期刊论文)
第三段只看数,会看到:美国约47,000名患者的并列试验中最佳短信把预约日疫苗接种提高约4.6个百分点。(Katherine L. Milkman、Mitesh S. Patel、Linnea Gandhi 等,2021)失败路径直接指向“排名只对同一入口和成本结构有效”,越界后继续放大系数没有解释力。量级核对落在“大规模并列实验让行为干预从单篇显著转向同场排名”,原来互相抵消的组别差才会显形。
异质性足以使平均符号归零。在未预约或高度不信任人群中,提醒越密、接种率反而可能下降。边界证据可追到Pin-Hsuan Wu、Yi-Yu Ho、Ching-Mao Chang(2025)《Electronic Nudges for Influenza Vaccination》。争议对象限定为《A Megastudy of Text-Based Nudges Encouraging Patients to Get Vaccinated at an Upcoming Doctor’s Appointment》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。
较老的命名提供了一把检验新瓶旧酒的尺。L. L. Thurstone在1927年已经划定了同一对象的边界。排名只对同一入口和成本结构有效。历史对照留下对象,现代研究则要求同一平台同时随机比较多种信息,才能把创意差异与样本差异分开接受失败检验。
它补足的恰是另一条没有记录的路径。参见本块第十二条“规模化落差”。观察窗的新端点是2022年的《A 680,000-person megastudy of nudges to encourage vaccination in pharmacies》(Katherine L. Milkman、Linnea Gandhi、Mitesh S. Patel 等)。制度反馈迫使比较本块第十二条“规模化落差”,两条必须用不同分母裁决。邻接检验转向“同一平台同时随机比较多种信息,才能把创意差异与样本差异分开”,若时序与符号仍保留,原机制才算冗余。
René F. Kizilcec、Justin Reich、Michael Yeomans 等,2020,《Scaling up behavioral science interventions in online education》,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117(26) 14900–14905,DOI 10.1073/pnas.1921417117
最新
Laura Goodyear、Tanjim Hossain、Dilip Soman,2022,《3 Prescriptions for Successfully Scaling Behavioral Interventions》,Behavioral Science in the Wild 28–41,DOI 10.3138/9781487527525-005
奠基
Thomas C. Schelling,1978,《Micromotives and Macrobehavior》(专著)
同一政策在另一个初始状态下会得到相反排序。当推广带来学习与固定成本摊薄时,规模越大、效应越小的方向可反转。另一个样本由René F. Kizilcec、Justin Reich、Michael Yeomans 等(2020)《Scaling up behavioral science interventions in online education》。争议对象限定为《The Science of Using Science: Towards an Understanding of the Threats to Scaling Experiments》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。
这条线与早期理论的连接点十分明确。Thomas C. Schelling在1978年先行提出了这里仍沿用的机制。衰减不是统一常数,必须报告站点分布。“实验室有效性在规模化后衰减,实施忠实度必须进入分母”的新增知识,集中在规模化改变参与者、执行者与监督强度,决定效果的是实施生态而非原始处理名称。符号变化取决于“实验室有效性在规模化后衰减,实施忠实度必须进入分母”,原来互相抵消的组别差才会显形。
两条看似同题,实际分别结算结构与过程。参见第78号创新管理面板的规模化组织学习条目。另一时期的复测见Laura Goodyear、Tanjim Hossain、Dilip Soman《3 Prescriptions for Successfully Scaling Behavioral Interventions》,刊于2022年。
五从改个人转向改系统,i-frame助推会遮蔽制度根因The i-Frame and the s-Frame: How Focusing on Individual-Level Solutions Has Led Behavioral Public Policy Astray
提出
Nick Chater、George Loewenstein,2023,《The i-frame and the s-frame: How focusing on individual-level solutions has led behavioral public policy astray》,Behavioral and Brain Sciences 46,DOI 10.1017/s0140525x22002023
争议
作者未详,2020,《CRITIQUE WITHIN THE FRAME, CRITIQUE OF THE FRAME》,Technologies of Critique 35–37,DOI 10.2307/j.ctvsf1qgp.16
最新
Daniel Connolly、George F. Loewenstein、Nick Chater,2024,《An S-Frame Agenda for Behavioral Public Policy》,SSRN Electronic Journal,DOI 10.2139/ssrn.4759434
奠基
Kurt Lewin,1951,《Field Theory in Social Science》(专著)
测量误差不是唯一问题,选择进入样本也会反号。当个体助推分散政治注意时,助推越多、系统改革概率反而越低。方法反驳见作者未详(2020)《CRITIQUE WITHIN THE FRAME, CRITIQUE OF THE FRAME》。争议对象限定为《The i-Frame and the s-Frame: How Focusing on Individual-Level Solutions Has Led Behavioral Public Policy Astray》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。对撞关系建立在“个体框架把结构性约束重写为选择失误,系统框架才改变选项生成和权力分配”,若时序与符号仍保留,原机制才算冗余。
最新研究把这处接口推进到新的观察窗。参见本块第十四条“sludge来自制度入口”。2024年的《An S-Frame Agenda for Behavioral Public Policy》由Daniel Connolly、George F. Loewenstein、Nick Chater给出近端读数。
Rebecca C. Ruehle,2022,《Nudging》,Handbuch Wirtschaftsethik 777–780,DOI 10.1007/978-3-476-05806-5_90
争议
STUART MILLS,2022,《Personalized nudging》,Behavioural Public Policy 6(1) 150–159,DOI 10.1017/bpp.2020.7
最新
Jodi Chiam、Aloysius Lim、Ankur Teredesai,2024,《NudgeRank: Digital Algorithmic Nudging for Personalized Health》,Proceedings of the 30th ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining 4873–4884,DOI 10.1145/3637528.3671562
奠基
Herbert A. Simon,1947,《Administrative Behavior》(专著)
早期著作给出的边界仍在约束今天的外推。Herbert A. Simon在1947年奠定了本条所修改的旧命题。需要预注册特征集并审计未被服务的人。本条沿用旧对象,却用用历史响应预测谁接受何种架构,决定项从平均处理转为个体条件效应重设了可以失败的条件。尾部状态暴露出“模拟与现场研究常报告个性化相对统一策略有百分点级增益,但提升集中在可预测亚组”,点估计不能脱离对应观察窗。
交叉验证来自另一套数据而不是同一篇论文的附表。参见第79号计算社会科学面板的算法公平条目。在《NudgeRank: Digital Algorithmic Nudging for Personalized Health》中,Jodi Chiam、Aloysius Lim、Ankur Teredesai把样本推进到2024年。
八透明助推通常不必失效,隐蔽性不是行为改变的必要机制Comparing Transparent and Covert Nudges: A Meta-Analysis
提出
Hendrik Bruns、Adrien Fillon、Zacharias Maniadis 等,2025,《Comparing transparent and covert nudges: A meta-analysis calling for more diversity in nudge transparency research》,Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics 116 102350,DOI 10.1016/j.socec.2025.102350
争议
Denise Danos,2020,《Toward a transparent meta-analysis》,The Southwest Respiratory and Critical Care Chronicles 8(33) 60–62,DOI 10.12746/swrccc.v8i33.641
最新
Ya-Ting Yang、Tao Li、Quanyan Zhu,2026,《Transparent Tagging for Strategic Social Nudges on User-Generated Misinformation》,IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering 13 1147–1161,DOI 10.1109/tnse.2025.3591983
奠基
Kurt Lewin,1951,《Field Theory in Social Science》(专著)
所以失败条件必须明确到:当公开目的触发反控制动机时,透明度越高、采纳率反而越低。复现分歧见Denise Danos(2020)《Toward a transparent meta-analysis》。争议对象限定为《Comparing Transparent and Covert Nudges: A Meta-Analysis》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。分组后首先显出“当公开目的触发反控制动机时,透明度越高、采纳率反而越低”,这会改写排序而不只是降低精度。样本窗必须对准本块第十九条“自主性伦理”,两条必须用不同分母裁决。
把它接到邻条后,才看得到政策排序为何会改。参见本块第十九条“自主性伦理”。Ya-Ting Yang、Tao Li、Quanyan Zhu(2026)以《Transparent Tagging for Strategic Social Nudges on User-Generated Misinformation》校验了相邻分母。
九boost训练能力而非替人选默认,效果应按迁移与保持结算Nudge versus Boost: How Coherent Are Policy and Theory?
提出
Till Grüne-Yanoff、Ralph Hertwig,2016,《Nudge Versus Boost: How Coherent are Policy and Theory?》,Minds and Machines 26(1-2) 149–183,DOI 10.1007/s11023-015-9367-9
争议
Daphne Truijens,2022,《Coherence between theory and policy in Nudge and Boost: Is it relevant for evidence-based policy-making?》,Rationality and Society 34(3) 368–394,DOI 10.1177/10434631221093741
最新
Lawrence Marcelle、Matthew Robb,2024,《Thinking Medium: A Design-based Critique of Nudge Theory》,Journal of Design Service and Social Innovation 1–33,DOI 10.59528/ms.jdssi2024.0906a20
奠基
B. F. Skinner,1953,《Science and Human Behavior》(专著)
争议并没有因此消失。若能力训练认知负荷过高,训练越多、弱势群体使用率反而越低。给出相反方向的是Daphne Truijens(2022)《Coherence between theory and policy in Nudge and Boost: Is it relevant for evidence-based policy-making?》。争议对象限定为《Nudge versus Boost: How Coherent Are Policy and Theory?》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。
本条的适用域不能越过经典定义中的一条界线。B. F. Skinner在1953年把同一现象放进可比较的理论边框。两者不是道德二分,应按时间窗和可逆性选择。现代证据没有取消旧边界,只新增boost把规则理解和决策能力作为可迁移资产,单次选择不是唯一终点的观测窗。
这里的异名不是修辞,而是机器可检索的桥。参见本块第二十条“长期保持”。时间上的外部验证是2024年《Thinking Medium: A Design-based Critique of Nudge Theory》,作者Lawrence Marcelle、Matthew Robb。对撞关系建立在本块第二十条“长期保持”,两条必须用不同分母裁决。模型的缺口恰是“boost把规则理解和决策能力作为可迁移资产,单次选择不是唯一终点”,若时序与符号仍保留,原机制才算冗余。
反证把适用域切得更窄。若分组在同一数据中反复搜索,异质性越精细、假发现反而越多。重估来自作者未详(2021)《Heterogeneous coefficients, control variables, and identification of multiple treatment effects》。争议对象限定为《Heterogeneous Treatment Effects in Behavioral Economics》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。
Patrik Michaelsen,2024,《Transparency and nudging: an overview and methodological critique of empirical investigations》,Behavioural Public Policy 8(4) 807–817,DOI 10.1017/bpp.2024.7
奠基
Herbert A. Simon,1947,《Administrative Behavior》(专著)
同题研究随后指出一个方向可能翻转的条件。若默认服务公共目标却压低少数群体福利,接受率越高、分配正当性反而越弱。目前没有第二篇文献直接击中同一判据;边界据此标为待检而非默认成立。争议对象限定为《Nudging and Choice Architecture: Ethical Considerations》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。反事实先删去“伦理评价不只问是否改变行为,还测是否知情、能否退出以及成本落到谁身上”,若时序与符号仍保留,原机制才算冗余。
概念史揭示了现代估计新增的恰是可量化环节。Herbert A. Simon在1947年区分了此处容易混写的两个对象。态度调查不能代替受影响群体的实际退出成本。今天可复算的是伦理评价不只问是否改变行为,还测是否知情、能否退出以及成本落到谁身上,而非经典文本的权威。
两条之间可复算的不是结论,而是比率。参见本块第十六条“透明助推”。2024年续作《Transparency and nudging: an overview and methodological critique of empirical investigations》把作者Patrik Michaelsen带入同题争论。
十二大规模现场试验给助推划出上限,注意提醒不能替代信任与可达性Evidence from a Statewide Vaccination RCT Shows the Limits of Nudges
提出
Nathaniel Rabb、Megan Swindal、David Glick 等,2022,《Evidence from a statewide vaccination RCT shows the limits of nudges》,Nature 604(7904) E1–E7,DOI 10.1038/s41586-022-04526-2
这条命题最危险的外推发生在边界上。当信息恰好解除误解且预约入口顺畅时,样本越大、助推越无效的方向可反转。反方向证据尚未形成独立来源,现阶段只记录可失败条件,不虚构对撞。争议对象限定为《Evidence from a Statewide Vaccination RCT Shows the Limits of Nudges》的失败条件,不外推为整个学科无效。
奠基层让“新”被拆成继承与改写两部分。Thomas C. Schelling在1978年先于数据接口提出了方向性命题。一次近零结果只约束同类低成本信息干预,不代表制度改造无效。旧文献给出骨架,本条据“在同一州级入口随机比较多种信息,直接检验提醒能否越过犹豫、交通与医疗接触障碍”重新核对“大规模现场试验给助推划出上限,注意提醒不能替代信任与”。
本条负责解释传导,邻条负责界定条件场。参见本块第十一条“疫苗短信megastudy”。末端证据写在Pin-Hsuan Wu、Yi-Yu Ho、Ching-Mao Chang《Electronic Nudges for Influenza Vaccination》(2025)中。可复算读数来自“在同一州级入口随机比较多种信息,直接检验提醒能否越过犹豫、交通与医疗接触障碍”,若时序与符号仍保留,原机制才算冗余。
Gabriel D. Carroll、James J. Choi、David Laibson 等,2009,《Optimal Defaults and Active Decisions*》,Quarterly Journal of Economics 124(4) 1639–1674,DOI 10.1162/qjec.2009.124.4.1639
John Beshears、James J. Choi、David Laibson 等,2021,《Active choice, implicit defaults, and the incentive to choose》,Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 163 6–16,DOI 10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.02.001
Robert L. Clark、Denis Pelletier,2022,《Impact of defaults on participation in state supplemental retirement savings plans》,Journal of Pension Economics and Finance 21(1) 22–37,DOI 10.1017/s1474747220000347
Hunt Allcott,2011,《Social norms and energy conservation》,Journal of Public Economics 95(9-10) 1082–1095,DOI 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.03.003
Mark A. Andor、Andreas Gerster、Jörg Peters 等,2020,《Social Norms and Energy Conservation Beyond the US》,Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 103 102351,DOI 10.1016/j.jeem.2020.102351
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Doojin Ryu、Robert I. Webb、Jinyoung Yu,2022,《Funding liquidity shocks and market liquidity providers》,Finance Research Letters 47 102734,DOI 10.1016/j.frl.2022.102734
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Alberto Abadie、Sebastien Gay,2006,《The impact of presumed consent legislation on cadaveric organ donation: A cross-country study》,Journal of Health Economics 25(4) 599–620,DOI 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2006.01.003
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Steven D Levitt、John A List,2007,《What Do Laboratory Experiments Measuring Social Preferences Reveal About the Real World?》,Journal of Economic Perspectives 21(2) 153–174,DOI 10.1257/jep.21.2.153
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P. Wesley Schultz、Jessica M. Nolan、Robert B. Cialdini 等,2007,《The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms》,Psychological Science 18(5) 429–434,DOI 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01917.x
Marco Tosi,2020,《Boomerang Kids and Parents’ Well-Being: Adaptation, Stressors, and Social Norms》,European Sociological Review,DOI 10.1093/esr/jcz068
作者未详,2025,《boomerang effect》,The IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology,DOI 10.1351/goldbook.14507
Stephanie Mertens、Mario Herberz、Ulf J. J. Hahnel 等,2022,《The effectiveness of nudging: A meta-analysis of choice architecture interventions across behavioral domains》,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119(1),DOI 10.1073/pnas.2107346118
Hani Samawi,2021,《Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis》,Applied Meta-Analysis with R and Stata 237–252,DOI 10.1201/9780429061240-9
Roland T. Rust、Donald R. Lehmann、John U. Farley,2026,《Estimating Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis》,Great Thinkers in Marketing 171–182,DOI 10.1007/978-3-031-88060-5_10
Maximilian Maier、František Bartoš、T. D. Stanley 等,2022,《No evidence for nudging after adjusting for publication bias》,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119(31),DOI 10.1073/pnas.2200300119
Yohei Mitani,2023,《Nudge Intervention and Non-response Bias in Landowner Participation》,AEA Randomized Controlled Trials,DOI 10.1257/rct.12514-1.0
Anoop Kumar,2023,《Heterogeneity and Publication Bias》,Meta-analysis in Clinical Research: Principles and Procedures 39–47,DOI 10.1007/978-981-99-2370-0_6
Katherine L. Milkman、Mitesh S. Patel、Linnea Gandhi 等,2021,《A megastudy of text-based nudges encouraging patients to get vaccinated at an upcoming doctor’s appointment》,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118(20),DOI 10.1073/pnas.2101165118
Katherine L. Milkman、Linnea Gandhi、Mitesh S. Patel 等,2022,《A 680,000-person megastudy of nudges to encourage vaccination in pharmacies》,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119(6),DOI 10.1073/pnas.2115126119
René F. Kizilcec、Justin Reich、Michael Yeomans 等,2020,《Scaling up behavioral science interventions in online education》,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117(26) 14900–14905,DOI 10.1073/pnas.1921417117
Laura Goodyear、Tanjim Hossain、Dilip Soman,2022,《3 Prescriptions for Successfully Scaling Behavioral Interventions》,Behavioral Science in the Wild 28–41,DOI 10.3138/9781487527525-005
Nick Chater、George Loewenstein,2023,《The i-frame and the s-frame: How focusing on individual-level solutions has led behavioral public policy astray》,Behavioral and Brain Sciences 46,DOI 10.1017/s0140525x22002023
作者未详,2020,《CRITIQUE WITHIN THE FRAME, CRITIQUE OF THE FRAME》,Technologies of Critique 35–37,DOI 10.2307/j.ctvsf1qgp.16
Daniel Connolly、George F. Loewenstein、Nick Chater,2024,《An S-Frame Agenda for Behavioral Public Policy》,SSRN Electronic Journal,DOI 10.2139/ssrn.4759434
Rebecca C. Ruehle,2022,《Nudging》,Handbuch Wirtschaftsethik 777–780,DOI 10.1007/978-3-476-05806-5_90
STUART MILLS,2022,《Personalized nudging》,Behavioural Public Policy 6(1) 150–159,DOI 10.1017/bpp.2020.7
Jodi Chiam、Aloysius Lim、Ankur Teredesai,2024,《NudgeRank: Digital Algorithmic Nudging for Personalized Health》,Proceedings of the 30th ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining 4873–4884,DOI 10.1145/3637528.3671562
Hendrik Bruns、Adrien Fillon、Zacharias Maniadis 等,2025,《Comparing transparent and covert nudges: A meta-analysis calling for more diversity in nudge transparency research》,Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics 116 102350,DOI 10.1016/j.socec.2025.102350
Denise Danos,2020,《Toward a transparent meta-analysis》,The Southwest Respiratory and Critical Care Chronicles 8(33) 60–62,DOI 10.12746/swrccc.v8i33.641
Ya-Ting Yang、Tao Li、Quanyan Zhu,2026,《Transparent Tagging for Strategic Social Nudges on User-Generated Misinformation》,IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering 13 1147–1161,DOI 10.1109/tnse.2025.3591983
Till Grüne-Yanoff、Ralph Hertwig,2016,《Nudge Versus Boost: How Coherent are Policy and Theory?》,Minds and Machines 26(1-2) 149–183,DOI 10.1007/s11023-015-9367-9
Daphne Truijens,2022,《Coherence between theory and policy in Nudge and Boost: Is it relevant for evidence-based policy-making?》,Rationality and Society 34(3) 368–394,DOI 10.1177/10434631221093741
Lawrence Marcelle、Matthew Robb,2024,《Thinking Medium: A Design-based Critique of Nudge Theory》,Journal of Design Service and Social Innovation 1–33,DOI 10.59528/ms.jdssi2024.0906a20
Patrik Michaelsen,2024,《Transparency and nudging: an overview and methodological critique of empirical investigations》,Behavioural Public Policy 8(4) 807–817,DOI 10.1017/bpp.2024.7
Nathaniel Rabb、Megan Swindal、David Glick 等,2022,《Evidence from a statewide vaccination RCT shows the limits of nudges》,Nature 604(7904) E1–E7,DOI 10.1038/s41586-022-04526-2
提出Maurice Allais,1953 年,Allais M. Le comportement de l'homme rationnel devant le risque. Econometrica 21 (1953)。 流变John Beshears、James J. Choi、David Laibson 等,2021,《Active choice, implicit defaults, and the incentive to choose》,Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 163 6–16,DOI 10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.02.001随后重检这条命题的对象、识别和外推边界。 今用本块甲“甲主动选择有时胜过默认,最优架构取决于偏好异质性”继续使用、修正或反对它建立的判断接口。 关键阿莱悖论把行为经济学的一项旧判断压成可撤回命题;比较必须固定对象、分母和时间窗,补回反例后若方向改变,经典只保留原适用域。
John Beshears、James J. Choi、David Laibson 等,2021,《Active c…后来反向校验《阿莱悖论》,保留可迁移结构,也撤回只在旧制度和旧测量中成立的扩展。与本块甲对读。现代关键读数是“雇员储蓄模型显示默认可提高参与率,但偏好差异大时强制主动决定减少错配”。它说明《阿莱悖论》的哪项设置被继承,又在哪个分母上被改写。经典地位不能替代《阿莱悖论》的新证据。核验《阿莱悖论》时须同时保存它没有解释的对象,不能只汇集成功分支。
提出Leon Festinger,1954 年,Festinger L. A Theory of Social Comparison Processes. Human Relations 7 (1954)。 流变Mark A. Andor、Andreas Gerster、Jörg Peters 等,2020,《Social Norms and Energy Conservation Beyond the US》,Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 103 102351,DOI 10.1016/j.jeem.2020.102351随后重检这条命题的对象、识别和外推边界。 今用本块乙“乙邻居用电信息能降耗,但效应会被政治身份和家庭基线改写”继续使用、修正或反对它建立的判断接口。 关键社会比较过程把行为经济学的一项旧判断压成可撤回命题;比较必须固定对象、分母和时间窗,补回反例后若方向改变,经典只保留原适用域。
Mark A. Andor、Andreas Gerster、Jörg Peters 等,2020,《Social N…把《社会比较过程》送进不同样本与制度,保留可证伪骨架,撤掉不再成立的普遍化。本块乙仍借用这套接口;其中关键读数是“数百万户现场数据中家庭报告使平均用电下降约2%,重复投递维持但未消除异质性”。《社会比较过程》若改用另一分母,结论就可能反号。《社会比较过程》因此成为现代条目的历史压力测试。
提出Leon Festinger,1957 年,Festinger L. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford University Press (1957)。 流变Hai-Anh H. Dang、Peter Lanjouw,2021,《Data Scarcity and Poverty Measurement》,SSRN Electronic Journal,DOI 10.2139/ssrn.3905066随后重检这条命题的对象、识别和外推边界。 今用本块丁“丁贫困会占用认知带宽,但因果方向不能只靠相关测验”继续使用、修正或反对它建立的判断接口。 关键认知失调把行为经济学的一项旧判断压成可撤回命题;比较必须固定对象、分母和时间窗,补回反例后若方向改变,经典只保留原适用域。
Leon Festinger在1957年的《认知失调》为行为经济学留下机制史装置:公开对象怎样进入分母,并把例外放在模型内。《认知失调》以前的争论容易把测量便利当成本体事实;《认知失调》使两者能够分账。《认知失调》成为经典,靠的是接受反例修订。
用Hai-Anh H. Dang、Peter Lanjouw,2021,《Data Scarcity and Pove…回看《认知失调》,可辨哪些结果来自原命题,哪些只是后来制度借名包装。本块丁保存这条差异;关键判断是“甘蔗农在收获前后同人比较中认知分数差约9—10个IQ点,实验账单冲击也呈同向”。它把《认知失调》的失败对象送回比较。《认知失调》的旧前提由本块检验证据成本。核验《认知失调》时须同时保存它没有解释的对象,不能只汇集成功分支。
提出Daniel Ellsberg,1961 年,Ellsberg D. Risk, Ambiguity, and the Savage Axioms. Quarterly Journal of Economics 75 (1961)。 流变HyungBin Moon、Youngjun Park、Sungmoon Jung,2024,《Analyzing consumer preferences for the level of tax salience of fuel taxes and the benefits of increasing salience》,Innovation studies 19(3) 55–77,DOI 10.46251/innos.2024.8.19.3.55随后重检这条命题的对象、识别和外推边界。 今用本块戊“戊税是否被看见会改变需求弹性,法定税率并非唯一价格”继续使用、修正或反对它建立的判断接口。 关键埃尔斯伯格悖论把行为经济学的一项旧判断压成可撤回命题;比较必须固定对象、分母和时间窗,补回反例后若方向改变,经典只保留原适用域。
提出Amos Tversky、Daniel Kahneman,1974 年,Tversky A, Kahneman D. Judgment under Uncertainty. Science 185 (1974)。 流变Vicente Formoso、Sílvia Marina、Miguel Ricou,2021,《Presumed Consent for Organ Donation: An Incoherent Justification》,Acta bioethica 27(1) 27–35,DOI 10.4067/s1726-569x2021000100027随后重检这条命题的对象、识别和外推边界。 今用本块己“己推定同意能提高器官捐献率,但法律默认不能替代医疗组织”继续使用、修正或反对它建立的判断接口。 关键不确定判断的启发式与偏差把行为经济学的一项旧判断压成可撤回命题;比较必须固定对象、分母和时间窗,补回反例后若方向改变,经典只保留原适用域。
提出Richard H. Thaler,1980 年,Thaler RH. Toward a Positive Theory of Consumer Choice. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 1 (1980)。 流变Xiaojun Yang、Zihan Nie、Jianying Qiu 等,2020,《Institutional preferences, social preferences and cooperation: Evidence from a lab-in-the-field experiment in rural China》,Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics 87 101554,DOI 10.1016/j.socec.2020.101554随后重检这条命题的对象、识别和外推边界。 今用本块庚“庚实验室偏好不能无损外推,选择进入实验本身就是处理”继续使用、修正或反对它建立的判断接口。 关键禀赋效应的消费选择解释把行为经济学的一项旧判断压成可撤回命题;比较必须固定对象、分母和时间窗,补回反例后若方向改变,经典只保留原适用域。
《禀赋效应的消费选择解释》在1980年造成的转向首先是一项测量史选择。Richard H. Thaler把对象、操作和失败读数排成可质疑次序,没有把行为经济学的复杂性缩成权威判断。《禀赋效应的消费选择解释》原文本之外仍有空栏,教科书式扩写不能自动填平。
提出Daniel Kahneman、Jack Knetsch、Richard Thaler,1991 年,Kahneman D, Knetsch JL, Thaler RH. Anomalies: The Endowment Effect. Journal of Economic Perspectives 5 (1991)。 流变Hani Samawi,2021,《Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis》,Applied Meta-Analysis with R and Stata 237–252,DOI 10.1201/9780429061240-9随后重检这条命题的对象、识别和外推边界。 今用本块一“一助推的平均效应不等于可移植规律,发表偏倚会抬高总体值”继续使用、修正或反对它建立的判断接口。 关键异常与禀赋效应的实验整合把行为经济学的一项旧判断压成可撤回命题;比较必须固定对象、分母和时间窗,补回反例后若方向改变,经典只保留原适用域。
Hani Samawi,2021,《Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis》,Appli…后来反向校验《异常与禀赋效应的实验整合》,保留可迁移结构,也撤回只在旧制度和旧测量中成立的扩展。与本块一对读。现代关键读数是“纳入200余项研究、400多个效应,原始平均效应约d=0.43,但异质性和发表偏倚显著”。它说明《异常与禀赋效应的实验整合》的哪项设置被继承,又在哪个分母上被改写。经典地位不能替代《异常与禀赋效应的实验整合》的新证据。
提出Leonard J. Savage,1954 年,Savage LJ. The Foundations of Statistics. Wiley (1954)。 流变René F. Kizilcec、Justin Reich、Michael Yeomans 等,2020,《Scaling up behavioral science interventions in online education》,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117(26) 14900–14905,DOI 10.1073/pnas.1921417117随后重检这条命题的对象、识别和外推边界。 今用本块四“四实验室有效性在规模化后衰减,实施忠实度必须进入分母”继续使用、修正或反对它建立的判断接口。 关键主观概率与决策一致性把行为经济学的一项旧判断压成可撤回命题;比较必须固定对象、分母和时间窗,补回反例后若方向改变,经典只保留原适用域。
Leonard J. Savage在1954年的《主观概率与决策一致性》为行为经济学留下制度史装置:公开对象怎样进入分母,并把例外放在模型内。《主观概率与决策一致性》以前的争论容易把测量便利当成本体事实;《主观概率与决策一致性》使两者能够分账。《主观概率与决策一致性》成为经典,靠的是接受反例修订。
用René F. Kizilcec、Justin Reich、Michael Yeomans 等,2020,《Scal…回看《主观概率与决策一致性》,可辨哪些结果来自原命题,哪些只是后来制度借名包装。本块四保存这条差异;关键判断是“跨政策案例显示从试点到推广的效果经常缩小,部分项目降幅超过一半”。它把《主观概率与决策一致性》的失败对象送回比较。《主观概率与决策一致性》的旧前提由本块检验证据成本。
提出Herbert A. Simon,1955 年,Simon HA. A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice. Quarterly Journal of Economics 69 (1955)。 流变作者未详,2020,《CRITIQUE WITHIN THE FRAME, CRITIQUE OF THE FRAME》,Technologies of Critique 35–37,DOI 10.2307/j.ctvsf1qgp.16随后重检这条命题的对象、识别和外推边界。 今用本块五“五从改个人转向改系统,i-frame助推会遮蔽制度根因”继续使用、修正或反对它建立的判断接口。 关键有限理性与满意化把行为经济学的一项旧判断压成可撤回命题;比较必须固定对象、分母和时间窗,补回反例后若方向改变,经典只保留原适用域。
1955年的《有限理性与满意化》不是名人标签。Herbert A. Simon沿制度史把行为经济学中混写的对象、证据和价值判断分开,规定什么材料算支持、哪种记录足以迫使命题后退。《有限理性与满意化》的阴性对象与退出记录由此能在同一账本重算。
作者未详,2020,《CRITIQUE WITHIN THE FRAME, CRITIQUE OF THE FRAM…后来反向校验《有限理性与满意化》,保留可迁移结构,也撤回只在旧制度和旧测量中成立的扩展。与本块五对读。现代关键读数是“综述显示大量政策只优化表单与信息,却不触及垄断、贫困或工作条件的上游变量”。它说明《有限理性与满意化》的哪项设置被继承,又在哪个分母上被改写。经典地位不能替代《有限理性与满意化》的新证据。
提出Ronald H. Coase,1960 年,Coase RH. The Problem of Social Cost. Journal of Law and Economics 3 (1960)。 流变STUART MILLS,2022,《Personalized nudging》,Behavioural Public Policy 6(1) 150–159,DOI 10.1017/bpp.2020.7随后重检这条命题的对象、识别和外推边界。 今用本块七“七个性化助推可能提高命中率,也可能把历史偏差固化进规则”继续使用、修正或反对它建立的判断接口。 关键社会成本与交易安排把行为经济学的一项旧判断压成可撤回命题;比较必须固定对象、分母和时间窗,补回反例后若方向改变,经典只保留原适用域。
《社会成本与交易安排》在1960年造成的转向首先是一项制度史选择。Ronald H. Coase把对象、操作和失败读数排成可质疑次序,没有把行为经济学的复杂性缩成权威判断。《社会成本与交易安排》原文本之外仍有空栏,教科书式扩写不能自动填平。
提出George A. Akerlof,1970 年,Akerlof GA. The Market for Lemons. Quarterly Journal of Economics 84 (1970)。 流变Denise Danos,2020,《Toward a transparent meta-analysis》,The Southwest Respiratory and Critical Care Chronicles 8(33) 60–62,DOI 10.12746/swrccc.v8i33.641随后重检这条命题的对象、识别和外推边界。 今用本块八“八透明助推通常不必失效,隐蔽性不是行为改变的必要机制”继续使用、修正或反对它建立的判断接口。 关键柠檬市场与质量不确定性把行为经济学的一项旧判断压成可撤回命题;比较必须固定对象、分母和时间窗,补回反例后若方向改变,经典只保留原适用域。
George A. Akerlof在1970年的《柠檬市场与质量不确定性》为行为经济学留下人物史装置:公开对象怎样进入分母,并把例外放在模型内。《柠檬市场与质量不确定性》以前的争论容易把测量便利当成本体事实;《柠檬市场与质量不确定性》使两者能够分账。《柠檬市场与质量不确定性》成为经典,靠的是接受反例修订。
用Denise Danos,2020,《Toward a transparent meta-analysis》,The…回看《柠檬市场与质量不确定性》,可辨哪些结果来自原命题,哪些只是后来制度借名包装。本块八保存这条差异;关键判断是“23篇研究、117个效应量的比较显示透明助推总体不弱于隐蔽助推,并可能提高接受度”。它把《柠檬市场与质量不确定性》的失败对象送回比较。《柠檬市场与质量不确定性》的旧前提由本块检验证据成本。
提出Amartya Sen,1970 年,Sen A. Collective Choice and Social Welfare. Holden-Day (1970)。 流变Daphne Truijens,2022,《Coherence between theory and policy in Nudge and Boost: Is it relevant for evidence-based policy-making?》,Rationality and Society 34(3) 368–394,DOI 10.1177/10434631221093741随后重检这条命题的对象、识别和外推边界。 今用本块九“九boost训练能力而非替人选默认,效果应按迁移与保持结算”继续使用、修正或反对它建立的判断接口。 关键集体选择与个人福利把行为经济学的一项旧判断压成可撤回命题;比较必须固定对象、分母和时间窗,补回反例后若方向改变,经典只保留原适用域。
Daphne Truijens,2022,《Coherence between theory and policy …后来反向校验《集体选择与个人福利》,保留可迁移结构,也撤回只在旧制度和旧测量中成立的扩展。与本块九对读。现代关键读数是“比较框架显示boost成本较高但可能跨情境保持,助推成本低却高度依赖场景”。它说明《集体选择与个人福利》的哪项设置被继承,又在哪个分母上被改写。经典地位不能替代《集体选择与个人福利》的新证据。
作者未详,2021,《Heterogeneous coefficients, control variables, …把《前景理论》送进不同样本与制度,保留可证伪骨架,撤掉不再成立的普遍化。本块十仍借用这套接口;其中关键读数是“多现场数据常见总体只有小效应而亚组差异达数倍,部分群体符号相反”。《前景理论》若改用另一分母,结论就可能反号。《前景理论》因此成为现代条目的历史压力测试。核验《前景理论》时须同时保存它没有解释的对象,不能只汇集成功分支。
提出Elinor Ostrom,1990 年,Ostrom E. Governing the Commons. Cambridge University Press (1990)。 流变未检得同题独立反证随后重检这条命题的对象、识别和外推边界。 今用本块十二“十二大规模现场试验给助推划出上限,注意提醒不能替代信任与可达性”继续使用、修正或反对它建立的判断接口。 关键公共池资源的自主治理把行为经济学的一项旧判断压成可撤回命题;比较必须固定对象、分母和时间窗,补回反例后若方向改变,经典只保留原适用域。
Allais M. Le comportement de l'homme rationnel devant le risque. Econometrica 21 (1953)。
Festinger L. A Theory of Social Comparison Processes. Human Relations 7 (1954)。
Strotz RH. Myopia and Inconsistency in Dynamic Utility Maximization. Review of Economic Studies 23 (1955)。
Festinger L. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford University Press (1957)(专著)。
Ellsberg D. Risk, Ambiguity, and the Savage Axioms. Quarterly Journal of Economics 75 (1961)。
Tversky A, Kahneman D. Judgment under Uncertainty. Science 185 (1974)。
Thaler RH. Toward a Positive Theory of Consumer Choice. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 1 (1980)。
Slovic P. Perception of Risk. Science 236 (1987)。
Kahneman D, Knetsch JL, Thaler RH. Anomalies: The Endowment Effect. Journal of Economic Perspectives 5 (1991)。
Camerer CF. Behavioral Game Theory. Princeton University Press (2003)(专著)。
Arrow KJ. Social Choice and Individual Values. Wiley (1951)(专著)。
Savage LJ. The Foundations of Statistics. Wiley (1954)(专著)。
Simon HA. A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice. Quarterly Journal of Economics 69 (1955)。
Schelling TC. The Strategy of Conflict. Harvard University Press (1960)(专著)。
Coase RH. The Problem of Social Cost. Journal of Law and Economics 3 (1960)。
Akerlof GA. The Market for Lemons. Quarterly Journal of Economics 84 (1970)。
Sen A. Collective Choice and Social Welfare. Holden-Day (1970)(专著)。
Kahneman D, Tversky A. Prospect Theory. Econometrica 47 (1979)。
North DC. Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University Press (1990)(专著)。
Ostrom E. Governing the Commons. Cambridge University Press (1990)(专著)。
John Beshears、James J. Choi、David Laibson 等,2021,《Active choice, implicit defaults, and the incentive to choose》,Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 163 6–16,DOI 10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.02.001。
Mark A. Andor、Andreas Gerster、Jörg Peters 等,2020,《Social Norms and Energy Conservation Beyond the US》,Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 103 102351,DOI 10.1016/j.jeem.2020.102351。
Doojin Ryu、Robert I. Webb、Jinyoung Yu,2022,《Funding liquidity shocks and market liquidity providers》,Finance Research Letters 47 102734,DOI 10.1016/j.frl.2022.102734。
Hai-Anh H. Dang、Peter Lanjouw,2021,《Data Scarcity and Poverty Measurement》,SSRN Electronic Journal,DOI 10.2139/ssrn.3905066。
HyungBin Moon、Youngjun Park、Sungmoon Jung,2024,《Analyzing consumer preferences for the level of tax salience of fuel taxes and the benefits of increasing salience》,Innovation studies 19(3) 55–77,DOI 10.46251/innos.2024.8.19.3.55。
Vicente Formoso、Sílvia Marina、Miguel Ricou,2021,《Presumed Consent for Organ Donation: An Incoherent Justification》,Acta bioethica 27(1) 27–35,DOI 10.4067/s1726-569x2021000100027。
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